SCO 1.3

The students will be expected to draw upon primary and/or secondary sources to demonstrate an understanding of the peace process ending WW1, including the following delineations.

Some definitions:

1. Paris peace conference: the leaders of the victorious Allied powers met at Versailles in January 1919 to hammer out the peace treaties that would officially end WW1. People hoped that these treaties would mark the beginning of a lasting era of peace. Yet even before the treaties were ready to sign, those hopes were dashed.

2. Fourteen points: goals outlined by American President Woodrow Wilson proposed as the basis for a just a lasting peace.

3. Treaty of Versailles: Peace settlement negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference that ended WW1. It was the treaty signed between Germany and the Allies. Its terms included reparations payments, limitations on Germany’s military force, the surrender of Germany’s colonies, and the establishment of a League of Nations.

4. “Big Three”: The men whose views had dominated the peace conference. These were Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of Great Britain and Woodrow Wilson of the United States.

Georges Clemenceau	David Lloyd George	Woodrow Wilson

SCO1.3.1

Summary of Wilson’s Fourteen Points (Wilson’s framework for peace)

See p.59 in text for Fourteen Points

Synthesis:

• Pont 1 - “Openly” formed treaties
• Points 2-5 - Freedom of the seas trade, reduced armaments and peaceful settlement of colonial claims
• Points 6-13 - Border readjusted and European colonial settlements along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.
  
• Point 14 - Create “general association of nations” for collective security and peace.

SCO 1.3.2

Analysis of France had to basic goals:

1. National Security: France wanted to remove the threat from German military Power. Ultimately this resulted in France demanding the return of Alsace-Lorraine and the demilitarization of German Rhineland. The Allies would occupy the west bank of the Rhine River of 15 years and Germany would be prohibited from placing troops or fortifications within 50 km of the east bank.
   
2. Reparations: monetary payments for damages due to the war.

3. British Position: to ensure security of sea lanes to the British empire. This was to be achieved by crippling German sea Power and severely limiting Germany’s naval power.

Questions:

1. Why did Great Britain not support France's demands for huge reparation payments and territorial demands? Text p.61

2. Why did David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill not want Germany weakened too much? Text p. 61
   

SCO 1.#.3 Summarized the main terms of the Treaty of Versailles. (K)

see P.64 Text !!!!!!!!!!!

SCO 1.3.4

Evaluate whether or not the Treaty of Versailles was a just peace treaty. (i)

Student positions will undoubtedly vary Read pp. 62-63 in text.

SCO 1.3.5

Examine the purpose for creating the League of Nations.

The Purpose of the League of Nations was essentially to promote international cooperation. Its mandate was to maintain peace by settling disputes peacefully and by reducing world armaments.

Also, read pp. 76-79 in text!!!!!

SCO 1.3.6

Hypothesize the impact Versailles Treaty might have on creating German bitterness and threatening German stability during the postwar period. (i)

Treaty terms left anger and bitterness in Germany. The huge reparation payments would soon trigger runaway inflation and eventual economic collapse in Germany. Furthermore, military restrictions and the war guilt clause were humiliating. Thousands of disgruntled and demobilized German troops would later join wing political groups like Nazis.

Question:

Did the terms of the Versailles Treaty create such discontent Germany that the coming of another major war was inevitable?

The Great Depression:

Causes:

1. Over-Production and Over-Expansion.
   • Based on the general, overall prosperity of the 1920's business and industry expanded and began to flood the market with various products. Although the 20's were a period of prosperity many Canadians could still afford to purchase so many products. This caused the market to become flooded with unsold goods.

   • As a result of the surplus of unsold goods, industries started to decline financially. Sales continued to decrease and numerous businesses slowed or stopped production of goods, causing many people to lose their jobs.

   Basic Economic Lesson: produce only as many items as you can sell.

2. Canada’s dependence on a few primary resources.
   • During the 1920's the Canadian economy depended heavily on a few primary or basic products, staples i.e pulp and paper and wheat.

   • Canada’s economy became prosperous because of the high demand for the country’s products in other parts of the world (exports).

   • Demand of the Canadian exports began to decline during the late 1920's and large surpluses remained. The Canadian wheat industry was hit particularly hard during this time due to international competition, disastrous droughts and growing surpluses. The decline in the wheat industry created a snowball effect that negatively affected farmers and other secondary resource industries associated with the wheat industry.

3. Canada’s Growing dependence on the United States.

   • During the 1920's Canadians bought 65 percent of imports from America and 40 percent of Canadian exports were sent to America.

   • At this time America had replaced Britain as Canada’s most important trading partner and became the primary supplier of investments funds for Canada.

   • This growing dependence on America set off a chain reaction that negatively affected Canadian Economy during the depression because America no longer had a need/demand for Canadian goods. They were more concerned with keeping their own heads above water.

4. High tariffs choked off international trade.

   • During the 1920's Europe was recovering from an expensive war. As a result many European countries could not afford to buy many of the goods they needed from North America.

   • At this time countries started to implement protective tariffs. These tariffs placed higher prices on imported goods and trading among countries started to decline.

   • With international trade declining Canada’s industries expanded Increased surpluses and Falling Prices.

5. Too much credit buying.

   • Credit buying became a common custom by the late 1920's. Many Canadians chose to buy goods on credit during the 20's because it allowed them to purchase products that they would not have otherwise been able to afford i.e. automobile.

     Buying on credit involves buying a product through multiple payments. Most times interest payments often resulted in a good costing more than it is worth. For example if you decided to buy a new computer on a “ Don’t pay for 24 months” credit plan and did not pay the full price of the computer by the set due date, interest would be added to the price of the computer from the date you purchased it. This is usually how Credit companies make their money.

   • Unfortunately when the economy started to decline and unemployment rates started to rise many people were unable to make their payments. As a result numerous businesses failed and many families even lost their homes.

6. Too much credit buying of stocks.
   • In the 1920's the stock market offered everybody the opportunity to improve his or her financial situation.

   • Some people bought stock through stockbroker. A person could purchase stock with a small down payment usually 10%. The broker would lend the person the rest of the money at a high interest rate. When their stock went up people could sell their stock, pay back their loan and pocket the profit. This was known as “buying on margin”.

   • Problems occurred with this system when stock prices began to fall dramatically, people panicked and tried to sell their stock.

   • This panic continued and by October 1929 most stocks on the Toronto and Montreal stock exchanges nose-dived more than 50%. Economic decline was widespread; The Great Depression had begun.

Social/Economic effects of the Great Depression:

• Unemployment
• Homelessness
• Poverty
• Family problems

According to Marx, throughout history societies had been divided into two classes - the “haves” and the “have nots” - who always struggled with each other. In industrialized societies,the bourgeoisie (middle class) were the “haves” and the proletariat (working class), were the “have nots”. The “haves” controlled the means of producing goods and thus possessed great wealth and power. Although the proletlariast’s labour gives value to a product, workers get only wages while the owners of the factories gain wealth and power. The "have nots” perform the backbreaking labour but received low wages while enduring poor working conditions. Marx predicted that workers would join together to overthrow the bourgeoisie. “Workers of the world, unite” wrote Marx. “You have nothing to lose but your chains”.

Marx believed a classless society based upon the principles of communism would emerge in which everyone would share wealth and power. Marx described communism as a form of complete socialism in which the means of proudction (all land, mines, factories, railroads and businesses) would be owned by the people. (In reality, these would be owned and controlled by the state. Private property would in effect cease to exist).

Autocratic government of Nicholas II.

Many were upset because Nicholas II ruled Russia as an Autocrat) he alone ran the country and made decisions), and called for change in the politcial system. A state police called the Okhrana watched people who were against the Tsar. These people usually ended up in exile in bleak and isolated Siberia.

Nicholas II

Plight of peasants and factory workers.

Most Russians were peasants and, much of Russia’s farmland was of poor quality. Food shortages were common. In the winter of 1891-92, millions died of starvation. Russians peasants wanted to own their land instead or working for wealthy landlords.

Russians industrial workers were becomning more and more invloved in confrontations with the government over wages and working conditions.

Note: Landowning nobles were often rich and powerful. There were other rich Russians as well such as the capitalist. Capitalists used their money to set up banks and factories or to trade. They often made huge profits but paid low wages to workers and did very little to improve either working or living conditions of their workers.

Political reform demands by liberals and Marxists

• Liberals did not want to overthrow the Tsar. They wanted him to introduce Western democratic ideas and supported the notion of an elected parliament(Duma). They were often educated and professional people.

• Marxists, sometimes called Social democrats, wanted a revolution based on the ideas of the German political thinker, Karl Marx. They supported a revolution whereby the workers would take over. In 1903, this party split into Mensheviks and Bolsheviks. Mensheviks said the revolution would happen when all the workers were ready to take part in it. The Bolsheviks led by Lenin, said the revolution needed to be led and started by a small group of revolutionaries. It was the Bolsheviks who were to bring about the Communist Revolution of November 1917.

Impact of Russo - Japanese War (1905) and World War I

• In 1904, Russia and Japan had begun to fight over control of Manchuria and Korea. The was a disaster for both the Russian army and navy. By the Treaty of Portsmouth, 1905, Russia agreed to Japanese control of Korea and much of Manchuria. Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese war was a major cause of unrest.

• Major military defeats and the loss of over a million troops by the end of 1914 (i.e. Battle of Tannenberg and Battle of Mansurian Lakes) and the German advance into Russia led to discontent. Nicholas himself took command of the army. This proved to be a mistake as he was held directly to blame for the slaughter. Russian troops were poorly led. Desertions soon became common.

Influence of Grigori Rasputin:

Rasputin was a self-proclaimed holy man who appeared to have a positive impact on Alexei’s haemophilia illness. He was especially important to the Tsarina Alexandra. When the Tsar went to the Front in 1915, Alexandra was left in charge in St. Petersburg. She turned to Rasputin for advice about everything. Ministers had to be approved by him and he gave orders about running the war. As Russia’s problems continued to go wrong, Rasputin was blamed for many of the country’s problems. Many of Russia’s nobles resented Rasputin to whom they were losing power and they found him to be rude and his behavior appalling (i.e. affairs with scores of women). In desperation, a group of nobles assassinated Rasputin but the damage was done. The Tsar, it was said was not fit to rule. He had allowed his German wife and a crazy monk to run the country while he went to fight the war. The Tsar had to go!

Grigori Rasputin

SCO 2.1.4

Evaluation of how the policies of the Provisional Government led to its downfall and the Bolshevik takeover.

The provisional government adopted two policies that led to its downfall:

• Decision to continue the war against Germany
• Postponement of land reform until after the war was over

SCO 2.1.5

Comparison of the roles of political leaders in the Russian Revolution:

Alexander Kerensky (1811 - 1970): A Russian politician.

A democratic socialist, he became War Minister and weeks later Prime Minister in the Provisional government following the March Revolution of 1917. He was determined to keep Russia in World War 1, but his attempts to launch a powerful offensive in the summer were unpopular with the Russian people who were anxious for peace. He was pushed out of office by the Bolsheviks in the November Revolution of 1917.

Leon Trotsky (orig. Name Lev Davidovich Bronstein) (1879 - 1940):

He returned to Russia from exile in 1917 to join the Bolsheviks and played a leading role in their seizure of power. He became Commissar for Foreign Affairs (1917-18), and as Commissar for War (1918-25) he created the Red Army and was largely responsible for its success in the civil war(1918-20). After Lenin’s death, Stalin undermined Trotsky’s authority and gained control of the party administration. Trotsky was deprived from all his offices, expelled from the Communist Party in 1927 and exiled in 1929, but continued to agitate, intrigue and condemn Stalin’s ambitions. He was alleged to have organized, with the help of foreign governments, a vast plot to overthrow the Soviet regime, was sentenced to death in his absence (1937), and assassinated by a Soviet agent in Mexico City in 1940.

Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924)

With German help, he returned to Russia from exile in 1917. As a leader of the Bolsheviks, Lenin and his supporters steadily spread their views. Bolsheviks supporters made popular speeches in factories and at the front. They delivered Lenin’s ideas, simplified into the slogan "Peace, Land and Bread". This slogan appealed to many soldiers, workers and peasants. The Bolshevik newspaper Pravda(Truth) poured out anti-government propaganda and support grew for the Bolsheviks while it declined for the Provisional government.

Nicholas II (1868-1918)

Tsar of Russia from 1894-1917. During his reign the following events occurred : The Russo-Japanese War, alliance with Britain and France against the Central Powers in WWI, food shortages because of bad harvests, and the Russian revolutions of 1905 and 1917. Nicholas opposed badly needed political reform, although the 1905 revolution forced him to introduce the Duma, and from 1911 was unduly influenced in his choice of ministers by the unscrupulous Rasputin. He was forced to abdicate in 1917, and he and his family were executed by the Bolsheviks in 1918.

SCO 2.1.6

Events and immediate outcome of the Russian Civil War: (K)

Shortly after signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, civil war broke out in Russia (1920-1922). Lenin’s government the (The Reds) were opposed by the Whites. The Whites received foreign aid from Russia’s old allies who were angry with Lenin for pulling out of the war and his refusal to pay back all the money they had lent the Tsar. Western European countries were also afraid that communist ideas would spread to their countries and threaten capitalism and democracy. Leon Trotsky organized the Red Army and after the White Armies suffered defeats, foreign powers began to withdraw. The communists eventually prevailed.

SCO 2.1.7

Analysis of how Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and “war communism” enabled Lenin to consolidate power in Russia. (A)

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: Lenin sent Trotsky to Brest-Litovsk to negotiate peace for Russia. The German-Austrian demands were harsh but Lenin was determined to end the war at any price. He knew that Russia was on the point of Civil war and it would be impossible for his government to fight the Germans and the Whites. Russia had to pay a huge fine for the German cost of war and had to hand over the following lands to Germany and Austria-Hungary:

• Finland
• Estonia
• Latvia
• Lithuania
• Poland
• Georgia
• Ukraine

Much of the territory lost included its most valuable farmland (i.e. Ukraine) and industrial areas around the Baltic.

Although many Russians were furious, Lenin believed that these sacrifices had to be made to save the revolutions.

Lenin introduced war communism during Civil War. This meant that the government took over the economy to make sure it had the weapons and food it needed. Government policies included:

• Seizing peasant grain
• Terror (i.e secret police (Cheka) and censorship to silence cities)
• Execution of the royal family
• Government took control of most industries, railroads and banks

SCO 2.1.8

Assessment of economic and social impact of the New Economic Policy(NEP) and Five Year Plans

New Economic Policy(NEP) In March 1921, Lenin announced the New Economic Policy, a program designed to rebuild the shattered Russian economy. The NEP eliminated many harsh measures of war communism and some return to capitalist practices. To encourage agricultural production, for example, the government stopped seizing grain from peasants. Peasants were encouraged to sell their surplus grain on the open market. The government kept control of heavy industry, railroads and banks but allowed small manufacturers to run their own business.

Result: The NEP lasted until 1928 and the Russian economy improved. Industry and agriculture improved. Industry and agriculture improved to prewar levels. Workers enjoyed shorter hours and better conditions. The government also relaxed terror and censorship.

Market under the New Economic Policy

Five Year Plans: Lenin had died in 1924 and after a power struggle within the communist party, Stalin emerged victorious over his main political rivalry, Leon Trotsky. By 1929 Stalin saw the Soviet Union (new name of the country since 1922) as being surrounded by enemies. He felt the nation militarily weak in the large part because its economy was not industrialized. He believed the only way Russia could survive a foreign attack was to develop its industry. In 1928, 1933 and 1938 he announced ambitious five-year plans outlining specific production goals in industry and agriculture. His five year plans poured Russian resources into building steel mills, electric power stations, cement plants and oil refineries, all industries essential to a strong modern nation.

Result: Impressive results were achieved in steel and oil production. By 1940 the Soviet Union had become the second largest producer of oil and steel in Europe. However, the quality of finished goods was often poor and economic goals were achieved at a tremendous sacrifice in human terms. Factories and workers were assigned production quotas and when not met the government often handed out punishment for laziness or sabotage (e.g. loss of jobs, homes, or food ration cards). Rewards were granted to those who reached production goals. Usually, however, targets were to hard to reach.

Effects of the 5 Year Plans on Russia

SCO 2.1.9

Analysis of methods used by Stalin to exercise control over Soviet people.

To achieve his goals and exercise control over the Soviet people Stalin organized a totalitarian government whereby a single party dictatorship controlled every aspect of citizens’ lives. In totalitarian states individual rights count for little or nothing, absolute obedience to government is not to be questioned, critics are often silent and extreme nationalism is promoted.

Under Stalin, the government controlled newspapers, the radio, and all forms of communication. He censored the press and used it to pour out propaganda praising his policies. Soviet writers and artists were expected to glorify the Soviet Union and praise Stalin. Those who refused were often expelled from the Soviet Union, exiled to Siberia, or could not get their work published.

Stalin used terror to silence opposition to his rule and to increase his control. Two noteworthy examples include:

Collectivization: The NEP created a situation where some peasants grew rich by selling their surplus crops. They became known as Kulaks and hired poor peasants to work for them. Lenin’s policy allowed a capitalist class of peasants to develop. This was against communist beliefs. The farming system was inefficient and many were too poor to afford modern equipment (i.e. use of horse-drawn wooden ploughs instead of tractors). By 1927 Stalin felt Soviet agriculture had to be modernized. Besides, the Kulaks had always embarassed the government because communist ideas did not allow for individual profit-making. Stalin decided the Kulaks had to go.

In 1929 Collectivization was announced. All fields, machinery and animals were to be used to set up collective farms which would be farmed by whole villages and not by individual farmers. Many Kulaks protested by burning their crops and slaughtering their livestock rather than give them up to the state. Stalin responded by exiling an estimated 5 000 000 Kulaks to remote parts of the country (i.e. Serbia) or sent tem to labor camps where many died.

Note: By 1933, Soviet agriculture productivity had improved and the government did promote literacy on the farms.

Of course Stalin’s policies of collectivization and industrialization had made him many opponents. During the 1930s he decided to deal with anyone he thought was against him. He set up “purges” to eliminate “enemies of the state”. Between 1936 and 1953, over 40 000 000 people were arrested. About 24 000 000 of them were executed or died in labor camps. Many who were “purged” included loyal communists, military officers, and ordinary people like teachers and factory workers.

Fascism

SCO 2.2

Students will be expected to draw upon primary and/or secondary resources to demonstrate an understanding of the Great Depression and the emergence of and nature of Fascism in Italy and Germany.

2.2.1

Definitions:

1. Wiemar Republic: The post-World War I German republic that governed Germany from 1913 to 1933. Germany’s selected parliament (Reichstag) was to be elected by proportional representation. This meant that if, for example, a party got 5% of the votes then it would get 5% of the seats in parliament. This encouraged the setting up of many political parties with the result that no single political party would likely win an outright majority of 51% of the seats. Therefore, governments had to be formed with groups of parties together to ensure they had the support of more than half of the elected representatives. The problem was that the parties in the coalition often quarreled. A president was to be elected who would have the power to appoint and dismiss the Chancellor or Prime Minister. He could also rule by decree in an emergency. This meant he could pass laws without parliament’s approval.

2. Munich Beer Hall Putcsh: 1923 attempt by Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi party, and General Ludendorff to organize a march from Munich to Berlin to overthrow the Weimar Republic. The march was broken up by Bavarian police in Munich, and Hitler was arrested.

3. New Deal: The economic and social program launched by F.D. Roosevelt to help the USA recover from the Depression. Examples:
   • Public works projects to create work for the unemployed
   • Increased economic and social security for the aged and those in ill-health
   • Agricultural and industrial aid
   • Re-financing of mortgages at low interest rates

4. Enabling Act: Bill passed by the Reichstag which was to give Hitler power to make laws without parliament’s approval for four years. In other words it would make Hitler virtual dictator of Germany. Hitler soon outlawed all political parties except the National Socialist Workers’ Party (Nazis).

5. Gestapo: The secret state police of Nazi Germany, headed by Himmler, and notorious for its ruthless interrogation methods.
   
   Cartoon used to show the Gestapo halting freedom of speech

6. Anti-Semitism: the persecution of or discrimination against Jews.

7. Nuremburg Laws: Laws passed in Nazi Germany (1935) discriminating against Jews.
   • Deprived Jews of citizenship
   • Outlawed marriage between Jews and Aryans
   • Jews were not permitted to practice law or medicine or to preform music
   • Many Jewish shops were closed, synagogues were shut down, and properties were confiscated.

8. Kristallnacht: “The night of broken glass.” In 1938, after German diplomat was assassinated by Jewish youth a night of terror occurred across Germany against Jews. Synagogues, homes, and shops were set afire. Many Jews were arrested, beaten and even murdered.

   In the aftermath,the Jewish community was forced to pay for repairs. Jews could no longer own stores or businesses or engage in trade. Jewish children were banned from attending school. Places of public entertainment, culture, and sports were off limits. Driving licenses were revoked. All Jews were forced to wear yellow stars, symbolizing the Star of David, on their clothing as identification. Thousands were arrested and imprisoned. Still more were forced into ghettos, and then ultimately into Nazi death camps.

9. March on Rome: A Fascist-inspired legend about the way in which Mussolini came to power in Italy. Throughout 1922 there was a danger of civil war in Italy, with the Fascist seizing control of several cities. Mussolini demanded a Fascist government and concentrated his supporters on the approaches to the capital. King Victor Emmanuel III gave way before the Fascist threat, dismissed the Prime Minister, and invited Mussolini to return from Milan to Rome to form a government.

10. Mein Kampf: After the failure of the Munich Beer Hall Putch Hitler was convicted of treason and served a lenient sentence of 9 months in Landsberg prison. During this time he wrote his autobiography called Mein Kampf (My Struggle) in which explained his beliefs.

    • Germany must conquer new territory in Eastern Europe to give the German people living space. He called this lebensraum. This would be done by defeating the communist USSR.
    • Germany should get revenge for the way it had been treated by Treaty of Versailles.
    • All German-speaking people living in Europe should be ruled by one strong leader.
    • The Jewish people were the enemies of Germany.

SCO 2.2.2.

Analysis of the basic elements of Fascim.

(Note: the term Fascism originated in Italy. Adolf Hitler also to this ideology.)

• Extreme nationalism: unquestioning loyalty and service to the Nation-state. Mussolini wanted to restore Italy to its former glories of the ancient Romans. He Was determined to prove Italy’s superiority to other “inferior” races and establish an Empire in Africa as a symbol of that greatness.

• Dictatorship: only a firm ruler in total control could provide necessary leadership. (i.e Duce’ in Italy or Furher in Germany. Democracy made nations weak and soft.

• Economic self-sufficiency: the country had to develop its resources and depend as little as possible on imports; the economy, although still owned by private individuals, had to be directed by the government in the interests of the nation.

• Military strength and war: Pacifism was viewed as a weakness and belligerence a virtue. Mussolini once declared that “War is to male what childbearing is to the female."

• Other important elements of Fascism include:
  • Racial purity
  • Creation of scapegoats

SCO 2.2.3

Assessment of how each played an important role in Mussolini’s rise to power in Italy.

Benito Mussolini

1. Economic difficulties

   The depressed economic conditions in the aftermath of WWI led to pessimism about the future. Italy was impoverished and in chaos. In the south there was extreme poverty as many landless peasants scratched a living from the soil. In the north where most industry was located inflation (an increase and a decrease in value of currency) caused sharp price increases (560% between 1914 and 1921) and unemployment was rising. The socialists organized strikes (2,000 in 1920) and factory occupations (280 in Milan in 1919 alone). The socialists seemed about to launch a Bolshevik style Communist take-over. Big firms like Fiat and Pirelli looked desperately for someone to crush this threat. In the south the peasants began seizing land and the landowners were convinced that revolution was about to swamp the country.

2. Weakness of Coalition Governments

   Between 1919 and 1922 Italy had five different coalition governments, none of which was able to make firm decisions. (See weakness of coalition governments in SCO 2.2.1 under Weimar Republic). Mussolini saw his chance.

3. Industrialist fears of Socialism and Communism

   Mussolini promised the bosses and the landowners to smash the socialist-organized land and factory seizures. He would provide disciplined law and order. In 1919 he set up his own fascist party consisting of many former soldiers and let them loose to violently break the workers and peasants movements. Soon wealthy industrialists and landowners showed their gratitude with huge sums of money. Mussolini created a great impression as the King and the Pope hailed him as a man who would save Italy from the twin evils of communism and godlessness. In 1921 the liberal prime minister asked Mussolini to join the government’s election group. The fascists were becoming more popular and in 1921 Mussolini won 35 seats as opposed to none in 1919. The decisive event came in 1922 when the Socialists and the newly-formed Communist party called a general strike. Mussolini saw this as his chance. He demanded to be made Prime Minister and assembled 50 000 Blackshirts (his terror gang of thugs) in Florence, ready to march on the Rome and seize power by force if necessary. Being intimidated the King refused to act upon the Prime Minister's request to use Rome’s 12 000 regular troops against the Blackshirts, and asked Mussolini to become Italy’s new Prime Minister. He had taken power quite legally, having only threatened to use force. Before the end of 1925 free press and political parties would disappear

SCO 2.2.4

Examination of how the following posed a problem for the Weimar Republic and contributed to Adolf Hitler’s rise to power.

Adolf Hitler

1. Treaty of Versailles

   To many Germans, t he signing of the Treaty of Versailles with its harsh and humiliating terms was an unforgivable - a shameful blot on Germany’s proud tradition. The civilian government, not the army had been left the unpleasant task of suing for peace in 1918 and it was the Weimar Republic that would always be associated with defeat and humiliation. Hitler referred to them as The “November Criminals”. Later, Hitler’s Nazi Party vowed to avenge that dishonor and create a Germany that once again would be proud of itself and worthy of international respect.

2. Economic Difficulties

   From the beginning the Weimar Republic was faced with economic instability which threatened its existence. The economy was in ruins and huge war debts and reparations payments overwhelmed the new treasury. The government printed money as needed leading to hyper inflation. This led to skyrocketing prices. German marks were worthless and many people were financially ruined. The savings of middle and working class people were wiped out resulting in bitterness and distrust toward the Weimar Republic and its politicians. Only the very wealthy escaped the terrible effects of the inflation because the value of their land and factories kept pace with the increase in prices. Due to proportional representation coalition governments often rose and fell. New, more radical parties such as the communists and the fascists often fought in the streets. In the midst of this political instability Hitler unsuccessfully attempted to overthrow the Weimar Republic in his Munic Hall Putch.

   The Crisis facing the Weimar Republic reached its peak in November 1923 but during the next 6 years, Germany experienced a period of economic prosperity. This economic success was brought about largely by American investment and loans provided by the Dawes Plan of 1924. However, when the New York stock exchange crashed in 1929, the Americans has no option but to pull out their investments from Germany and demand immediate repayment of loans. Within months, the German economy was reeling as business failed and unemployment levels soared. Political tensions rose and elections produced street battles and minority governments. Depression, social collapse, international humiliation and political chaos worked to destroy the Weimar Republic. The final blow came from Adolf Hitler. Soon the Nazi Party won stunning electoral success and, although having less than the majority, by 1932 was the largest party in the Reichstag. In January 1933, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor as head of a coalition government. With elections called for March 1933 the Reichstag building was set on fire in February of 1933. Hitler accused the communists and persuaded Hindenburg to declare a state of emergency according to the constitution. After forming a coalition with the Nationalists whose 8% gave him 52% of the vote, Hitler would give the power to make laws without parliament's approval for four years. In other words, it made him a virtual dictator. The bill acquired its two-thirds majority with only the socialists voting against (The Communists had already been outlawed.). Before long Hitler the Enabling Act to outlaw all other political parties and Germany became a one party state - and all through the use of the constitution. When Hindenburg died in 1934 Hitler combined the offices of Chancellor and President. From this time onwards, he was known as the Fuhrer (leader).